fix(imaging): make avatar and badge images resilient to upstream outages

- Add persistent disk cache for rendered avatars/badges (storage/imaging)
  so repeats never touch the flaky local renderer and cached renders
  survive upstream downtime
- Serve cache-first with stale-on-error; cut primary/fallback timeouts
  from 10s/6s to 4s/4s so failing images cannot stall pages
- Avatar proxy now returns a graceful 200 silhouette instead of 502 when
  no renderer can produce a figure, so no broken-image glyphs appear
- Badge endpoint becomes a caching proxy trying configured CDN, public
  Habbo CDN and local /swf copy in order, and drops the fragile IP rate
  limit that could blank badge streams
- Route all site badge images (profile, me, badges, apply pages) through
  the cached proxy instead of hot-linking images.habbo.com

src/app/(site)/me/page.tsx

@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ import { ProfileImage } from "@/components/shared/profile-image";
 import { UserAvatarThumbnail } from "@/components/shared/user-avatar-thumbnail";
 import { SurfaceCard } from "@/components/surface-card";
 import { auth } from "@/lib/auth";
-import { avatarImageUrl, slugify } from "@/lib/format";
+import { avatarImageUrl, badgeImageUrl, slugify } from "@/lib/format";
 import { withPublicPagePerformance } from "@/lib/public-page-performance";
 import { loadDailyRewardState } from "@/lib/services/daily-rewards";
 import { loadUserDashboard } from "@/lib/services/user-dashboard";
@@ -456,7 +456,7 @@ async function MePage({
 								{badges.map((badge) => (
 									<img
 										key={badge.badgeCode}
-										src={`https://images.habbo.com/c_images/album1584/${encodeURIComponent(badge.badgeCode)}.gif`}
+										src={badgeImageUrl(badge.badgeCode)}
 										alt={badge.badgeCode}
 										title={badge.badgeCode}
 										width={40}